Category: Infectious Disease

Part 4: Perspectives on Global Health from Pharmacists Around the World

by pragmaticsolidarity, posted in Chronic Disease, Infectious Disease, Maternal and Child Health, Noncommunicable Diseases, Pharmaceuticals, Women's Health

As healthcare continues to morph and adapt based on the requirements of kind, compassionate, evidence-based care, pharmacists are playing a vital role in ensuring patient needs are met in countless regions across the world. In this four-part IH Blog series, the pharmacy role accompanied by profession-related challenges and pharmacist-led global health initiatives will be explored within a profession that is often underappreciated. The following perspectives, shared by practicing pharmacy professionals from the United Arab Emirates (UAE), India, Cambodia, and the United States of America (USA) aim at highlighting various aspects of healthcare that should be properly addressed by governmental bodies, NGOs, and all stakeholders by both sustainable political will and empowering solutions. 

This fourth and final segment explores targeted populations in each of the aforementioned countries, the health ailments that burden these groups, and each pharmacist’s proposed pathway to overcome these concerns within these nation states. 

In every corner of this vastly diverse planet, healthcare access and delivery affects countless aspects of humanity’s well-being. These aspects can range from the capability of obtaining the correct medications for treating dermatitis or receiving prophylaxis isoniazid therapy to accessing cancer screening with a pap smear and purchasing levemir at an affordable price. In addition to these direct implications on one’s life, healthcare possesses indirect factors such as social relationships influenced by health, hours lost working due to health commitments, and the emotional burden due to certain ailments. The global health community recognizes that health disparities exist throughout various regions of the world which affect these aforementioned facets. However, the inequalities that exist within explicit populations in these regions are often overlooked or overshadowed by more broad global initiatives.

In this final post for the IH Connect blog series, four practicing pharmacists reveal major concerns in their areas of inhabitation for specific populations: older adults, pediatrics, pregnant mothers, women’s health, and men’s health. These healthcare leaders then offer initiatives and solutions to address these complications to improve the lives of each member of their cherished communities. 

Dr. Moeung Sotheara, Ph.D. 
Clinical Research Assistant & Part Time Lecturer – University of Health Sciences
Phnom Penh, Cambodia 

Cambodia has achieved some remarkable health outcomes in recent decades such as improving newborn and child health, ensuring provision of HIV/AIDS treatment to over 80 percent of the infected population, and expanding vaccination coverage. However, there are a number of population-specific concerns that need to be addressed in order to further improve the overall healthcare and wellbeing of the people.

Older Adults

One of the top concerns regarding older adults in Cambodia is the lack of care centers for older adults and state pension provision. Consequently, the older adults in Cambodia are physically and financially dependent on their children to get access to health services from going to see a doctor to buying medicines. This results in older adults not willing to seek immediate medical care when they have health problems as they feel hesitant to ask for their children to help. Moreover, as they cannot go to the pharmacy on their own, they often miss out on crucial information regarding appropriate drug use. The solution is to provide all Cambodian workers with a social pension scheme and to build care centers for older adults, where they can easily gain access to healthcare.

Pediatrics

The top concern regarding pediatrics is the common and widespread use of fluid infusion. This dangerous practice has become a tradition in Cambodia. When a person is sick, most physicians prescribe intravenous (IV) drips either intentionally or on the patient’s demand even if he/she shows no sign of dehydration or fluid loss and often without careful monitoring. And children are no exception! To solve this problem, there should be campaigns to raise the public’s awareness about the danger of incorrectly used IV drips and to reinforce the doctors’ medical ethics.

Pregnancy

One of the top concerns regarding pregnant women is the use of traditional medicine. Traditional medicine is commonly described at two time points: one month before birth to ease child delivery and postpartum to increase breast milk production and prevent Tos (madness, depression). The most common form of traditional medicine used is herbal medicine which often consists of a mixture of different parts of multiple plants. The toxicity of these plant combinations has poorly been studied. To resolve the problem, a number of well-designed studies should be carried out to investigate the potential toxicity of herbal medicine during pregnancy and post-partum period.

Women’s health

The top concern regarding women’s health in Cambodia is the overuse of skin whitening and skin bleaching products. In a culture where lighter skin is often idealized, whitening is a common practice in Cambodia, especially for women despite the reported danger of those products. Whitening cream or lotion can be dangerous, and many counterfeit products are now on the market, making the practice even more dubious. The problem is of more concern as more and more creams are locally produced without the right standards, by mixing whitening cream with other vitamins and dangerous chemicals. Moreover, they are increasingly available online, or via social media where they are not sufficiently regulated. The immediate solution to this problem is to re-enforce the law regarding online cosmetic products advertisement. Furthermore, all production sites of sub-standard creams or lotions must be closed down. Additionally, any products must be screened for dangerous chemicals before they can be advertised and sold on the market. The public’s education of the danger of sub-standardly-produced skin whitening and skin-bleaching products is also of prime importance. The collective idealization of white skin should be changed and people should be educated to perceive beauty beyond the skin color.

Men’s health

Health impacts related to alcohol overconsumption has become a top concern regarding men’s health in Cambodia. A report by the Asia Foundation in 2015 showed that Cambodian men are drinking 9.7 litres of pure alcohol a year – 3.5 litres above the global average of annual alcohol consumption per capita. Furthermore, the study also found that Cambodian men tend to drink six times as much as their female counterparts. Social, economic and cultural factors together with the influential role of advertising are the predominant drivers of increased alcohol consumption among the Cambodian population, particularly men. Alcohol abuse has resulted in more than 60 major types of diseases including cardiovascular disease, cirrhosis of the liver, cancer and sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS. Restrictions on alcohol product advertisements, price control strategies and education of the public on the harmful effects of alcohol abuse are among the measures that can be taken to tackle the problem.

Dr. Maneesha Erraboina, PharmD.
International Business Manager – Helics Group Scientific Networks 
Hyderabad, India 

Older Adults

Most older adults use multiple drugs simultaneously for different conditions or for one condition. Polypharmacy causes poor adherence which leads to adverse drug events (ADRs) or medication errors (MEs). To avoid these ADR’s and ME’s, healthcare providers should educate patients about the medication in order to maintain good adherence and try to increase the knowledge of the health condition by performing patient counselling.

Pediatrics

Cost analysis is a ubiquitous problem for all types of diseases in each category of patient populations. In one of my research work entitled “Pharmacoeconomic Analysis and Treatment Pattern in Sepsis Patients: A Cross-sectional Prospective and Retrospective Study”, this publication infers about the cost analysis in sepsis patients particularly in the pediatric population. The major barrier is to overcome situations where health leaders are focused on cost rather than looking at the whole picture in order to provide equitable care. This can be accomplished by having input from these specific populations and reflecting on the role a healthcare provider should have in treatment. 

Pregnancy

For pregnant mothers, perinatal conditions that occur before, during and after the pregnancy can lead to perinatal mortality. In India, the most common conditions resulting in death are haemorrhage, trauma, and severely underweight babies. To avoid perinatal mortality, continuous assessment of pregnant women on medication and diet is needed by encompassing more prenatal and antenatal care health facility visits.

Women’s Health

Breast cancer is one of the top concerns in women’s health throughout the world, and this includes in India. In India, the etiological factors are difficult to identify for this type of cancer; however it mostly occurs in older women. It may occur due to older age and genetics. To decrease the risk of breast cancer, one should focus on non-pharmacological therapy that includes dietary and social changes.

Men’s Health

Commonly, pancreatitis occurs mostly in men with social history of alcohol consumption in India. In a study examining the main causes of pancreatitis, it was found that approximately 1/3rd of all pancreatitis cases was caused by alcohol. Counseling on decreases in alcohol consumption should be undertaken by all healthcare professionals in order to prevent this ailment.

Nazgul Bashir, B. Pharm
Registered Pharmacist – Super Care Pharmacy
Dubai, United Arab Emirates

As a pharmacist, we encounter a number of various types of populations seeking our care, both gender-specific and age-specific. Dubai, being a cosmopolitan city, sees many different ethnic groups and nationalities. With so much of diversity in the community, we see a number of different issues and it is our sole responsibility to identify them, recommend the most appropriate over the counter treatment to fulfill the need of the concerned person, or refer to a prescriber for more serious issues. One of the best aspects about being a pharmacist is that we have the opportunity to encounter new types of people and novel ailments every day. On the other end, some of the ailments encountered are difficult to manage due to a variety of reasons. Different groups of people who visits the pharmacy can be divided into men, women, older adults, pediatrics, and soon to be parents. In each population there are multiple issues which I will describe in detail in the following sections.

Pediatrics 

I would like to start talking about my most favorite population, pediatrics. Multiple concerns are present when it comes to children in the UAE including obesity, vitamin D deficiency, genetic problems, diabetes, and, most commonly, allergies and asthma. Out of these concerns, asthma and vitamin D deficiency are frequent ailments patients seek the care of a pharmacist for. One in every five children is suffering from asthma which initially, parents don’t realize. They self-diagnose it as night time coughing, chest congestion or persistent nagging. The cause is not simple. it could be anything airborne like construction dust (In the UAE, there is constantly large buildings being constructed), sand (UAE being the desert) and pollen from palm trees. Another major cause can be going in and out of air conditioner due to hot & humid weather. Cough suppressants and expectorants are first requests by parents and desperate patients even ask for montelukast or steroid based inhalers which is not an appropriate avenue to address the issue. First and foremost, the triggering allergen should be identified as airborne, smoke, or a viral cold. Educating parents about the importance of flu shots, the use of a peak flow meter to find out a child’s lung function and supplementing them with Echinacea, zinc, Elderberry or even Vitamin C to keep their immune boosted are also viable methods to address this ailment. Vitamin D deficiency is another common concern in children. Because hot and sunny summers last for a long time, children stay indoors rather than going out for any physical activities. Most of the body parts are covered with clothes which is common in UAE. 90% of the population is suffering from vitamin D deficiency including men, women and children. Pharmacists should recommend Vitamin D supplementation during these months in order to prevent this deficiency. 

Men’s Health 

Men’s health is often the most difficult to discuss because males make limited health visits. This could be because men ignore the illness affecting them or they could be uncomfortable discussing their health problems. Mainly, I want to talk about erectile dysfunction (ED) in men. One in every 3 men from age 40-70 suffer from ED, but due to cultural issues, the topic is often avoided. They avoid asking for professional help on this sensitive issue because they feel challenged, embarrassed and/or guilty. High diabetes and obesity rates and smoking/alcohol use are the main factors causing ED. Pharmacist counseling can provide significant help with lifestyle advice, proper supplementation, and education for reasons to follow up with a prescriber.

Older Adults

No matter which part of the world we belong to, a majority of older adults we see are on poly-pharmacy. This creates unique challenges in this population by having multiple health issues and taking a number of medications. In the UAE, proper guidance on use of these medications is often missing which leads to non-adherence to medications. From a patient’s perspective, taking 5 or more medications, either prescription or non-prescription, can be time-consuming and frustrating. For older adults with cognitive issues, issues surrounding medication adherence is exacerbated. As a community pharmacist, I would like to raise awareness about poly-pharmacy, adherence, and its effect on older adults. Many steps can be taken to increase the adherence. Color-coded pill boxes, properly labelled vials and easily read fonts should be used. Technology reminders should also be utilized to improve adherence. Another commonly noticed concern in older adults is drug induced nutritional deficiency which is defined as being on multiple medications that lead to a number of important nutrients being depleted. As pharmacists,  we should inform the patients the importance of this issue and help patients to identify the nutrition depletion by the medications they are taking.

Women’s Health 

Last but not the least, about 60% of the female population has issues regarding women’s health and are visiting pharmacists more often. Women’s health concerns are almost all interlinked including irregular menstruation, infertility, post menopausal symptoms, and urogenital complications. There are many more complications which could contribute to the larger discussion about this population. However, the one problem I would like to discuss is polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) which is infrequent or irregular menstruation or increase in androgen levels. It can be difficult to diagnose,  but many symptoms are excessive hair loss, acne/oily skin, weight gain and infertility. UAE has the highest rate of PCOS than any other part of the world. PCOS is a more recent disease which could be linked to modern lifestyles, more indoor activities and a decrease in outdoor activities, stress, and junk food intake. It can be caught initially if any adolescents discover a missed period or heavy periods. Most of the time, they don’t take it seriously and realize it when it is too late which could result in difficulties with conception or infertility. PCOS can not only lead to infertility but also anxiety and depression. Rates of infertility are increasing. When I investigate patients on their cycle most of the time, I find out they were having irregular periods in their early 20s, missed 3-4 months, and no action was taken because of it being such an intimate topic. I believe if we have any female patients coming to the pharmacy with issues like hair loss, excessive oily skin, facial hair, they should be advised for early screening of PCOS. Folic acid supplementation should be advised to people who are trying to conceive with PCOS or anyone with an irregular menstrual cycle. Lifestyle modification and weight loss should be emphasized as well.

Dr. Bryce Adams, Pharm D., RPh.
Oncology Medical Science Liaison
Washington D.C., United States of America 

Older Adults

I believe the biggest health concern for older adults in the USA is Alzheimer’s disease. This has been a growing concern as the human race’s lifespan has been exponentially increasing. While billions of dollars have been spent in research looking for a treatment, there hasn’t been much success. The current treatment options, cholinesterase inhibitors or N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonists, only slow the progression of the disease, albeit, with limited success. Therefore, these agents are most effective when initiated before the severity of the disease reaches a certain point. To address this concern, I believe we need to work on detecting the disease earlier and continue to research new options. Alzheimer’s screening needs to be incorporated into routine check ups in older adults, and implemented at a younger age with those with a family history of this ailment. Additionally, there needs to be continued research regarding the disease. This includes research to gain a better understanding of the pathophysiology as well as new agents to treat the disease. Most of our current research has been in regards to amyloid beta. While this could lead to better treatments, most of the efforts focusing on this have failed, therefore, I think we should start to focus more efforts elsewhere.

Pediatrics

The biggest health concern for American pediatric patients is the lack of novel treatments. While there have been great strides and new medicines for adult patients, there is typically a delay for access to these medicines for pediatrics. One way to combat this is to ensure there are a proportionate amount of clinical trials that include pediatric patients. This work is currently underway and hopefully will result in greater access to medicines for pediatric patients.

Pregnancy

I believe preeclampsia is the greatest concern during pregnancy as it is fairly common and can result in the death of the mother and/or child. While there are some treatments for this condition, there is still much room for improvement in terms of early diagnosing, prevention, and more effective therapy options. I believe we can improve outcomes by focusing our efforts on the aforementioned methods of improvement: identifying risks for preeclampsia more efficiently and preventative measures. 

Men and Women’s Health

I’ve combined men’s and women’s health into one as I believe the greatest concern is the same: heart disease. While there are several treatments currently for heart disease with decent success, there hasn’t been much advancement in recent years. Our current agents can manage the disease and reduce symptoms, but for the most part, they are unable to cure the disease. In order to combat this issue, American researchers and practitioners need to improve screening to identify the disease earlier on as well as focusing on new treatment options that have the potential to cure the disease.

Private Sector and Pandemic Preparedness: Beyond the $$

by awpain, posted in APHA IH Section, Emergency Preparedness and Response, Infectious Disease

The global health community knows that the world is unprepared for the next influenza pandemic. While public health practices have come a long way in terms of preparedness since the 1918 Spanish flu, which killed around 50 million people, we are still far from ready for an outbreak of that scale today.

According to PreventEpidemics.org, more than 100 outbreaks occur daily and can be spread worldwide in just 36 hours because of increased global travel. The cry for better pandemic preparedness is loud (Bill Gates, Margaret Chan, former director of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Robert Redfield, Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) director) but is only being heard in certain circles; and the global health community needs the message to get out more broadly, especially in the private sector. 

The bottom line

Disease outbreaks, even if they only occur within a country or region, affect everyone and negatively impact the global economy. A World Economic Forum/Boston Consulting Group report stated that epidemics have negative impact on the private sector by impacting their employees, customer bases and operations. 

The World Bank projects that a large pandemic will cause an average annual economic loss of 0.7 percent of global gross domestic product (GDP) or $570 billion USD. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic resulted in an economic loss of 0.14 percent of GDP, or $1.09 billion USD, and the Ebola epidemic in 2014 resulted in an economic loss of $2.2 billion USD in GDP, threatening macroeconomic stability, food security, human capital development and private sector growth across West Africa. 

The private sector is no stranger to making financial contributions for pandemic preparedness and response. In 2014 the private sector contributed $500 million USD to the Ebola outbreak response, and these days the private sector can financially assist in pandemic preparedness through the World Banks’ Pandemic Emergency Financing Facility (PEF). However, while financial contributions are always needed there are other ways the global health community can engage the private sector to improve pandemic preparedness.

More than money

In 2018, the WHO surveyed member states to assess global pandemic preparedness and found levels of preparedness to be “far from optimal” even among high and middle income countries. Based on these survey results the WHO identified several areas for improvement in regards to preparedness, four of which are particularly advantageous for private sector partnerships.  

  1. Conducting simulation exercises to test pandemic plans

The Institute for Disease Modeling (IDM) is one example of a private sector partnership to assist in pandemic preparedness. IDM’s Epidemiological MODeling software simulates the spread of disease to help determine the combination of health policies and intervention strategies that can lead to disease eradication. There are a number of other modeling and simulation tools available for pandemic preparedness, however, some of these tools require financial and/or technical resources not available to a global health organization. Private sector companies that use, or produce modeling software could be favorable partners for testing preparedness plans, since these companies already have the modeling skills to use the software and interpret results. 

      2. Establishing mechanisms to secure access to vaccines during a pandemic

There are two notable private sector partnerships already working to secure access to vaccines, GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance, and the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) are both working on improving vaccine supply chains and healthcare infrastructure in low-and middle income countries in order to increase access to routine vaccinations, as well as secure access to vaccines during a health emergency.

       3. Preparing mechanisms to conduct risk communications and community engagement during a pandemic

There is also potential for collaboration with the private sector in regards to risk communications and community engagement. Social media companies already have platforms to engage large audiences, as well as lucrative business platforms to sell ideas, information and products. Engaging people in preparing for and acting appropriately during a pandemic will require persuading an audience – something social media companies have already mastered.

      4. Establishing SOPs to conduct systematic influenza risk assessments using surveillance data

Several consulting companies offer pro bono services, such as Deloitte and PwC. Consulting  firms have the business acumen to offer services that could help design effective pandemic SOPs for multilateral organizations, country governments and agencies, as well as non-governmental organizations working on pandemic preparedness. 

Building these private sector relationships needs to happen now, and not in the midst of the next outbreak. Mutually beneficial partnerships will ultimately help the private sector, the global health community as well as the entire population when, not if, the next pandemic occurs.

Outcomes and Interventions for Sexually Transmitted Infections in sub-Saharan Africa

by ihsection, posted in Guest Blog, HIV/AIDS, Infectious Disease

By Samantha Dulak BS and Heather F. McClintock PhD MSPH MSW

This is the second part of a IH Blog series featured this summer, Sexually Transmitted Infections in sub-Saharan Africa: Determinants, Outcomes, and Interventions.

Part II: Outcomes and Interventions for Sexually Transmitted Infections in sub-Saharan Africa

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a significant public health burden globally and are a leading cause of mortality in lower middle income countries (LMICs). In 2016, there were 988,000 women infected with syphilis worldwide, resulting in 350,000 deaths and delivery complications (Korenromp, Rowley, Alonso, et al., 2019). Human papillomavirus (HPV), an incurable STI, leads to over half a million new cases of cervical cancer every year (Bray, Ferlay, Soerjomataram, et al., 2018). Cervical cancer can be the result of other factors, however, in 90% of all cervical cancer cases that resulted in death, the cancer was caused by HPV (WHO, 2018). Of the 1.8 million newly diagnosed HIV infections each year, 940,000 individuals died globally from AIDS related factors (UNAIDS, 2019a). Unfortunately, a third of those deaths (302,700) are among females aged 15-49 living in sub-Saharan Africa (UNAIDS, 2019b). Higher rates of complications are found in sub-Saharan Africa because of inadequate clinician training, delayed diagnosis, and limited care seeking behaviors (Mayaud & Mabey, 2004). STI surveillance systems are absent or poorly functioning in Africa causing unreliable data on the prevalence of these infections.

STIs are common in low resource settings and their impact can be catastrophic on the lives of individuals. The list of potential complications is extensive. Untreated gonorrhea and chlamydia are associated with the development of arthritis, hepatitis B with liver cancer, and syphilis with central nervous system disorders (Aral, Over, Manhart, & Holmes, 2006). While all individuals are at risk, women and children are disproportionately affected by a greater burden of disability, as assessed by disability adjusted life years. Women suffering without treatment can experience chronic pelvic and abdominal inflammation leading to infertility, spontaneous abortions, and many adverse pregnancy outcomes (Chesson, Mayaud, & Aral, 2017). 

International attention on STI outcomes is imperative to reducing the incidence of STIs not only in sub-Saharan Africa, but globally. Most attention has focused on HIV due to the public health crisis we are experiencing now. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) reported that Africa has the highest burden of STIs compared to all other continents (Lewis, 2011). The UNAIDS 2018 report on the global AIDS epidemic found that there are 37.9 million people living with AIDS in the world and 20.6 million of them live in eastern and southern Africa (UNAIDS, 2019a). 

Prevention strategies in sub-Saharan Africa place a heavy emphasis on sexual health education. A meta analysis of 51 papers reported that while school-based sexual health education significantly increased condom usage, there was no significant effect on the incidence of STIs (Sani, Abraham, Denford, & Ball, 2016). This information is promising, though. School aged children are experiencing positive behavior changes through the use of physical protection methods. Some studies even report a change of attitude towards persons living with HIV/AIDS (Paul-Ebhohimhen, Poobalan, & van Teijlingen, 2008). However, a focus on at-risk groups is missing. Sex workers, men who have sex with men, and intravenous drug users all have high susceptability to contracting an STI and greater attention needs to be directed towards prevention in these populations to reduce the incidence of STIs. 

To address the vast number of cases of cervical cancer caused by HPV, many sub-Saharan countries now qualify for assistance from the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization. As of 2018, eight countries have HPV vaccine programs for school aged children, with pilot programs implemented in nearly 16 additional countries (Black and Richmond, 2018). Data for all 8 countries is not public as of now, but of the five countries with available data, the success rate for at least one dose of the vaccine is 83% (Black and Richmond, 2018). Rwanda was the only country to successfully complete three doses, covering 98.7% of girls (Black and Richmond, 2018).

From a global perspective, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to ensure access to sexual and reproductive care and end the AIDS epidemic by 2030 (UN General Assembly, 2015). Primary prevention strategies have become popular among many countries to promote these goals. In 2018, the WHO reported on global STI surveillance, indicating that 44% of countries have HPV vaccines in their immunization programs (WHO, 2018). To reach those who are not benefiting from immunization initiatives, the 2016 Global STI Strategy, along with strategies for HIV and viral hepatitis, fight to meet the SDG 2030 agenda (WHO, 2018). The Global STI Strategy focuses on creating affordable interventions for at-risk individuals and adolescents in all countries. These plans are financed and delivered by promoting universal health care coverage to keep costs low (WHO, 2018). Additionally, the Gonococcal Antimicrobial Surveillance Programme (GASP) has improved national monitoring of antimicrobial resistance to gonorrhea in order to provide stronger data for new treatment research (Wi et al., 2017).

Samantha Dulak BS

Ms. Dulak was a biology major and global public health minor at Arcadia University. She has a strong interest in nutrition as well as maternal and child health. She now hopes to attend graduate school for public health and pediatrics.

Heather F. McClintock PhD MSPH MSW 

Dr. McClintock is an IH Section Member and Assistant Professor in the Department of Public Health, College of Health Sciences at Arcadia University. She earned her Master of Science in Public Health from the Department of Global Health and Population at the Harvard School of Public Health. Dr. McClintock received her PhD in Epidemiology from the University of Pennsylvania with a focus on health behavior and promotion. Her research broadly focuses on the prevention, treatment, and management of chronic disease and disability globally. Recent research aims to understand and reduce the burden of intimate partner violence in Sub-Saharan Africa. Prior to completing her doctorate she served as a Program Officer at the United States Committee for Refugees and Immigrants and a Senior Project Manager in the Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Pennsylvania. At the University of Pennsylvania she led several research initiatives that involved improving patient compliance and access to quality healthcare services including the Spectrum of Depression in Later Life and Integrating Management for Depression and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Studies.

References

Aral, S.O., Over, M., Manhart, L., Holmes, K.K. (2006). Sexually Transmitted Infections. In Jamison, D.T., Breman, J.G., Measham, A.R, Alleyne, G., Claeson, M., Evans, D.B., Jha, P., Mills, A., Musgrove, P. (Eds), Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries, second edition. 311–30. Washington (DC): World Bank and Oxford University Press.

Black, E., Richmond, R. (2018) Prevention of Cervical Cancer in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Advantages and Challenges of HPV Vaccination. Vaccines, 6(3), 61. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines6030061

Bray, F., Ferlay, J., Soerjomataram, I., Siegel, R.L., Torre, L.A., Ahmedin, J. (2018). Global Cancer Statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 68: 394–424.

Chesson, H.W., Mayaud, P., & Aral, S.O. (2017). Sexually Transmitted Infections: Impact and Cost-Effectiveness of Prevention. In Holmes, K.K., Bertozzi, S., Bloom, B.R., & Jha, P. (Eds.), Major Infectious Diseases, third edition. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and The World Bank.

Mayaud, P., Mabey, D. (2004). Approaches to the Control of Sexually Transmitted Infections in Developing Countries: Old Problems and Modern Challenges. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 80(3), 174–182. doi: 10.1136/sti.2002.004101

Korenromp, E.L., Rowley, J., Alonso, M., Mello, M.B., Wijesooriya, N.S., et al. (2019) Global burden of maternal and congenital syphilis and associated adverse birth outcomes—Estimates for 2016 and progress since 2012. PLOS One, 14(2): e0211720.

Lewis, D.A. (2011). HIV/sexually transmitted infection epidemiology, management and control in the IUSTI Africa region: focus on sub-Saharan Africa Sexually Transmitted Infections. BMJ, 87(2), ii10-ii13. doi: 10.1136/sextrans-2011-050178

Paul-Ebhohimhen, V.A., Poobalan, A., van Teijlingen, E.R. (2008). A systematic review of school-based sexual health interventions to prevent STI/HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Public Health, 8(4). doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-8-4

Sani, A.S., Abraham, C., Denford, S., & Ball, S. (2016). School-based sexual health education interventions to prevent STI/HIV in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 16, 1069. doi: 10.1186/s12889-016-3715-4

UN General Assembly. (2015). Transforming our world : the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Retrieved 16 July 20219 from https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/health/

UNAIDS. (2019a). Global HIV & AIDS statistics — 2019 fact sheet. Retrieved 16 July 2019 from https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet

UNAIDS. (2019b). In sub-Saharan Africa, three in five new HIV infections among 15–19-year-olds are among girls. Retrieved 15 July 2019 from https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/infographics/women_girls_hiv_sub_saharan_africa

Wi, T., Lahra, M. M., Ndowa, F., Bala, M., Dillon, J. R., Ramon-Pardo, P., . . . Unemo, M. (2017). Antimicrobial resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: Global surveillance and a call for international collaborative action. PLoS Medicine, 14(7). doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002344

The World Health Organization [WHO]. (2018). Report on global sexually transmitted infection surveillance. Retrieved 15 July 2019 from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/277258/9789241565691-eng.pdf?ua=1.

Sexually Transmitted Infections in Sub-Saharan Africa

by ihsection, posted in Guest Blog, HIV/AIDS, Infectious Disease

By: Samantha Dulak BS and Heather McClintock PhD MSPH MSW

This is the first part of a IH Blog series featured this summer, Sexually Transmitted Infections in Sub-Saharan Africa: Determinants, Outcomes, and Interventions.

Part I: Sexually Transmitted Infections in Sub-Saharan Africa

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are common acute conditions that while exacting a tremendous toll on health and well-being currently receive minimal media coverage and attention. This is likely due to resources being allocated to other new and emerging conditions, the stigma associated with people who are perceived to be able to contract STIs, and a lack of education about STI symptoms and treatment. STIs range from curable (syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia, and trichinosis) to incurable (HPV and HIV/AIDS) infections. The nearly 30 STIs are most commonly transmitted through sexual encounters, but contact with blood and mother to child transmission during pregnancy are other ways STIs can be spread (Newman et al., 2015). Comparing the four curable STIs globally, sub-Saharan Africa had the highest incidence and prevalence of syphilis and gonorrhea (Chesson, Mayaud, & Aral, 2017). Unfortunately, STIs can raise HIV transmission up to four times which is why controlling STIs is at the top of the public health professional’s radar (Stillwaggon & Sawers, 2015). The highest prevalence of HIV is found in sub-Saharan Africa with 53% of the world’s HIV population living there and 56% of those individuals being women (UNAIDS, 2018). Although incidence rates are falling globally, 1.8 million people were newly diagnosed in sub-Saharan Africa in 2017; there is much more work to be done to reach the 2020 goal of less than 500,000 new cases in this region (UNAIDS, 2018). The current estimates state that 66% of all new global HIV infections occur in sub-Saharan Africa (UNAIDS, 2018).

STIs affect people of all socioeconomic classes in every country. Without proper precautions, no one is immune from these infections. STIs in sub-Saharan Africa are particularly important because the largest estimates are reported in this region and public health advances can provide insight and hope to other countries that are affected. Combating the negative stigma around STIs will increase the amount of people who will know their status, subsequently increasing treatment for those infections that are treatable. Furthermore, globalization perpetuates the spread of STIs across geographic boundaries highlighting the importance of acknowledging and addressing STIs on a broad scale.

STIs cause major pregnancy complications such as ectopic pregnancies, infertility, and spontaneous abortions (Chesson, Mayaud, & Aral, 2017). In both men and women, liver cancer, central nervous system diseases, and arthritis are all common comorbidities (Aral, Over, Manhart, & Holmes, 2006). Due to insufficient diagnosis and treatment in many lower and middle income countries, the rates of complications are much higher. This inadequacy can be attributed to the asymptomatic nature of some STIs, lack of education on the topic, or poor care-seeking behaviors (Mayaud & Mabey, 2004).

There are many at-risk groups for contracting STIs, including men who have sex with men, female sex workers, children born to women with STIs, and intravenous drug users. An interesting connection to be made exists for women who experience intimate partner violence (IPV). IPV can include physical or sexual violence, stalking, and psychological control over one’s spouse or dating partner (Centers for Disease Control, 2019). Women are already disproportionately affected by STIs, and these rates are greatest in women who also have reported cases of IPV. One answer for this is that women who have experienced IPV are more likely to have high-risk partners (Miller, 1999). Abusive partners may express coercive behaviors both within and outside of the relationship (Miller, 1999). Additionally, people experiencing IPV can suffer psychological trauma leading them to have impaired decision-making skills and experience increased risk-taking behavior (Miller, 1999).

As of 2018, the World Health Organization has been utilizing the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) Global AIDS Monitoring system to quantify cases of STIs at the country level and the Gonococcal Antimicrobial Surveillance Programme (GASP) to follow antimicrobial resistance for the treatable STI, gonorrhea (Wi et al., 2017). For GASP to have continued success, international collaboration must be strengthened to develop advanced screening procedures and novel antibiotic treatments. By continually improving both monitoring systems, there may be hope for new vaccines for STIs we are still not protected from. Since antimicrobial resistance is not evolving at the same time across all countries, sharing data and laboratory methods for new pharmaceutical development is imperative to control the spread of STIs in sub-Saharan Africa (Wi et al., 2017).

References

Aral, S.O., Over, M., Manhart, L., Holmes, K.K. (2006). Sexually Transmitted Infections. In Jamison, D.T., Breman, J.G., Measham, A.R, Alleyne, G., Claeson, M., Evans, D.B., Jha, P., Mills, A., Musgrove, P. (Eds), Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries, second edition. 311–30. Washington (DC): World Bank and Oxford University Press.

Center for Disease Control [CDC]. (2019). Preventing Intimate Partner Violence. Retrieved May 27, 2019, from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/fastfact.html

Chesson, H.W., Mayaud, P., & Aral, S.O. (2017). Sexually Transmitted Infections: Impact and Cost-Effectiveness of Prevention. In Holmes, K.K., Bertozzi, S., Bloom, B.R., & Jha, P. (Eds.), Major Infectious Diseases, third edition. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and The World Bank.

Mayaud, P., Mabey, D. (2004). Approaches to the Control of Sexually Transmitted Infections in Developing Countries: Old Problems and Modern Challenges. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 80(3), 174–182. doi: 10.1136/sti.2002.004101

Miller, M. (1999). A model to explain the relationship between sexual abuse and HIV risk among women. AIDS Care, 11(1), 3-20. doi:10.1080/09540129948162

Newman, L., Rowley, J., Hoorn, S. V., Wijesooriya, N. S., Unemo, M., Low, N., . . . Temmerman, M. (2015). Global Estimates of the Prevalence and Incidence of Four Curable Sexually Transmitted Infections in 2012 Based on Systematic Review and Global Reporting. PLos One, 10(12). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143304

Stillwaggon, E., & Sawers, L. (2015). Rush to judgment: The STI-treatment trials and HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 18(1), 19844. doi:10.7448/ias.18.1.19844

UNAIDS. UNAIDS: Data 2018. 2018. https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/unaids-data-2018_en.pdf (accessed 26 May 2019).

Wi, T., Lahra, M. M., Ndowa, F., Bala, M., Dillon, J. R., Ramon-Pardo, P., . . . Unemo, M. (2017). Antimicrobial resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: Global surveillance and a call for international collaborative action. PLoS Medicine, 14(7). doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002344

Samantha Dulak

Samantha Dulak is a recent graduate from Arcadia University. She received her Bachelor of Science in Biology and a Minor in Global Public Health. Her enthusiasm for medicine and disease prevention perfectly intertwine these two fields of study. Her current public health interests are in maternal and child health and nutrition. Since graduation, Samantha has applied to naturopathic medical school with a goal of becoming a pediatric physician. In her free time, she enjoys reading, playing sports, and baking.

Dr. Heather F. McClintock PhD MSPH MSW

Dr. McClintock is an IH Section Member and Assistant Professor in the Department of Public Health, College of Health Sciences at Arcadia University. She earned her Master of Science in Public Health from the Department of Global Health and Population at the Harvard School of Public Health. Dr. McClintock received her PhD in Epidemiology from the University of Pennsylvania with a focus on health behavior and promotion. Her research broadly focuses on the prevention, treatment, and management of chronic disease and disability globally. Recent research aims to understand and reduce the burden of intimate partner violence in Sub-Saharan Africa. Prior to completing her doctorate she served as a Program Officer at the United States Committee for Refugees and Immigrants and a Senior Project Manager in the Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Pennsylvania. At the University of Pennsylvania she led several research initiatives that involved improving patient compliance and access to quality healthcare services including the Spectrum of Depression in Later Life and Integrating Management for Depression and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Studies.

1000 Deaths and Rising: The Complexity of DR Congo’s Ebola Outbreak

by pragmaticsolidarity, posted in APHA IH Section, Conflict and Health, Infectious Disease

The Ebola epidemic in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has officially taken the lives of over 1000 individuals, according to the country’s Ministry of Health. These statistics, which were released at the end of last week, have been accumulating since the outbreak’s onslaught in August 2018. This occurrence is considered the second deadliest in the history of this Filoviridae Virus in the world and the deadliest in the DRC. This specific incidence afflicting humanity is often referred to as the Kivu outbreak due to the initial emergence in this northeastern DRC province; however, the identified virulent strain is the Zaire Ebola Virus which happens to carry the highest rate of mortality of all strains.

The following is an up-to-date timeline of the current Ebola outbreak’s transition to an epidemic:

  • August 1st, 2018: The DRC’s Ministry of Health declares an Ebola outbreak in Mangina, North Kivu
  • August 7th, 2018: Laboratory findings confirm this outbreak is caused by Zaire Ebola
  • October 17th, 2018: World Health Organization (WHO) convenes a meeting about the Kivu outbreak. WHO declares this situation does not constitute the classification of a “Public Health Emergency of International Concern”
  • October 20th, 2018: An armed attack occurs in Beni, Kivu at a health care facility leaving 12 people dead
  • November 9th, 2018: The number of cases in DRC reaches 319 which marks the largest outbreak in the country’s history
  • November 29th, 2018: The Kivu epidemic becomes the second largest recorded outbreak of the Ebola virus in the history of the disease on this planet.
  • December 27th, 2018: There is an announcement of postponement of elections in Benin & Butembo which are two largest cities in Kivu.
  • February 24th, 2019: An MSF health care facility is partially burned down and MSF suspends activities in North Kivu by unknown militants
  • February 27th, 2019: A second MSF health care facility is attacked also by unknown militants and the NGO is forced to evacuate staff and suspend all operations in the province of Kivu
  • March 20th, 2019: The outbreak reaches the 1,000 confirmed cases mark of the Ebola Virus
  • April 12th, 2019: WHO holds an additional meeting but finds the Kivu outbreak still doesn’t qualify as a “Public Health Emergency of International Concern”
  • May 3rd, 2019: The number of deaths secondary to the Ebola virus reaches 1000

Although each explicit manifestation of this deadly communicable disease carries with it seemingly insurmountable barriers in the form of human resources, supply logistics, social tendencies, and global support, the Kivu is particularly devastating due to political uncertainty, lack of trust in the health care system, and civil unrest.

Despite the increase in novel innovations for treating Ebola and even a promising vaccine that can prevent the virus virology, the Kivu outbreak continues to surge ahead and torture the human species in large part to a break down of trust in the medical system. The surge has lead to identifying 126 confirmed cases over a seven day stretch at the end of April 2019 in addition to the aforementioned data confirming this outbreak to be the second largest in the history of Ebola. Despite this, the mistrust has amassed in a disbelief that the outbreak even exists. A study conducted by the Lancet in March 2019 revealed that 32% of the respondents believed that the outbreak did not exist in the DRC, it only served as a way serve the elite’s financial interests. Another 36% stated that the Ebola outbreak was fabricated to further destabilize the surrounding areas. With these sentiments, the responders marked that fewer than two-thirds would actually want to receive the vaccine for Ebola. These perceptions of fellow humans provides an additional barrier to overcome for health care professionals in addition to treating a high mortality rate disease in resource limited settings.

While the mistrust in the healthcare system provides a tremendous intrinsic challenge for the DRC, the civil conflict that has targeted Ebola treatment centers delivers a physical and emotional component of the devastatingly uniqueness of this outbreak. With over 100 armed groups thought to be estimated within Kivu province, this has led to widespread violence causing this area to be difficult to maintain access. Due to the high rate of armed groups and the political unrest, there has been 119 incidents of Ebola treatment centers and/or health workers that have been attacked since the start of this outbreak. A few shocking examples include the murder of Dr. Richard Mouzoko who was a Cameroonian WHO physician and the two torched MSF facilities in the northern part of Kivu that were mentioned in the timeline.

The Kivu Ebola outbreak has been unanimously christened one of the most complex humanitarian crises that faces this fragile planet today – the global health community is attempting to treat a disease with a 50% mortality rate, with inadequate but effective evidence-based treatment options in a resource-limited setting, all while in a treacherous war zone. Although these are insurmountable odds, health care professionals across Africa and other parts of the world are addressing the needs of their patients and communities to defeat this ailment. These physicians, nurses, pharmacists, and so many others are generating trust in the health care system at a grass-roots level in the DRC to combat the negative perceptions and the actual outbreak. This example, that the global health community can learn from, highlights the role each person dedicated to global health needs to undertake before an outbreak batters a part of this fragile planet. The vitality of trust can start to be built through having individual/group conversations truly listen to health beliefs, coming in with an open mind to acknowledge local health treatments to complement evidence-based treatment, providing patient centered care that encompasses their culture and values, supporting capacity-building initiatives that allow humanity to act accordingly, investing both time and resources in local public health care infrastructure, and expressing empathy ubiquitously socially and professionally.

Being part of the global health community, it is imperative that this outbreak is adequately supported by humanity. As fellow humans striving towards a healthier society, health care professionals and public health experts must accompany those tormented by the social factors associated with Ebola and the actual virus through global awareness of the situation, an un-stigmatized compassion for those who contract the disease, and a pragmatic solidarity to address this humanitarian crisis.